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Astronomer Vera Rubin changed the way we think of the universe by showing that galaxies are mostly dark matter.

So What Is Dark Matter?

Physicists and astronomers have determined that most of the material in the universe is “dark matter”—whose existence we infer from its gravitational effects but not through electromagnetic influences such as we find with ordinary, familiar matter. One of the simplest concepts in physics, dark matter can nonetheless be mystifying because of our human perspective. Each of us has five senses, all of which originate in electromagnetic interactions. Vision, for example, is based on our sensitivity to light: electromagnetic waves that lie within a specific range of frequencies. We can see the matter with which we are familiar because the atoms that make it up emit or absorb light. The electric charges carried by the electrons and protons in atoms are the reason we can see.

Matter is not necessarily composed of atoms, however. Most of it can be made of something entirely distinct. Matter is any material that interacts with gravity as normal matter does—becoming clumped into galaxies and galaxy clusters, for example.

There is no reason that matter must always consist of charged particles. But matter that has no electromagnetic interactions will be invisible to our eyes. So-called dark matter carries no (or as yet undetectably little) electromagnetic charge. No one has seen it directly with his or her eyes or even with sensitive optical instruments. Yet we believe it is out there because of its manifold gravitational influences. These include dark matter’s impact on the stars in our galaxy (which revolve at speeds too great for ordinary matter’s gravitational force to rein in) and the motions of galaxies in galaxy clusters (again, too fast to be accounted for only by matter that we see); its imprint on the cosmic microwave background radiation left over from the time of the big bang; its influence on the trajectories of visible matter from supernova expansions; the bending of light known as gravitational lensing; and the observation that the visible and invisible matter gets separated in merged galaxy clusters.

Perhaps the most significant sign of the existence of dark matter, however, is our very existence. Despite its invisibility, dark matter has been critical to the evolution of our universe and to the emergence of stars, planets and even life. That is because dark matter carries five times the mass of ordinary matter and, furthermore, does not directly interact with light. Both these properties were critical to the creation of structures such as galaxies—within the (relatively short) time span we know to be a typical galaxy lifetime—and, in particular, to the formation of a galaxy the size of the Milky Way. Without dark matter, radiation would have prevented clumping of the galactic structure for too long, in essence wiping it out and keeping the universe smooth and homogeneous. The galaxy essential to our solar system and our life was formed in the time since the big bang only because of the existence of dark matter.

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