In this webinar Frits Prinzen (Lead at the University of Maastricht) describes the cellular and ionic basis of the ECG. While action potentials are commonly described using an extracellular potential of zero, these extracellular potentials determine the ECG. Potentials measured depend on distance to the source, orientation and whether a unipolar or bipolar configuration is used. More advanced analyses may use vectorcardiography and ECG imaging.

Pacemakers are +60 years old, being one of the first implantable electronic devices. While originally being a kind of electrical metronome with a single electrode, nowadays most pacemakers using an atrial and at least one ventricular electrode. While originally developed for maintaining a normal heart rate, during the last 25 years (biventricular) pacing is used to treat heart failure in selected patients (CRT). Most recently, also leadless pacemakers have been developed.

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