Risk factors:
Decreased sun exposure (eg, nocturnal occupation, nursing home residence, northern latitudes)
Heavy skin pigmentation
Obesity
Malabsorption
Advanced age
Chronic kidney disease
Signs / symptoms:
Asymptomatic or nonspecific musculoskeletal symptoms
Low bone density, bone fracture
Osteomalacia: bone pain, muscle weakness
Diagnosis:
Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D
Insufficiency: 20-30 ng/mL
Deficiency: less than 20 ng/mL
1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D on the other hand primarily reflects parathyroid hormone levels and renal function
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